Instruments or test equipment are designed for adsorption and desorption studies. Adsorption is the physicochemical adhesion of a substance (liquid, gas, or dissolved solids sorbate) onto the surface of a solid or liquid. Adsorption results in the accumulation of molecules of gases, or ions or molecules of liquids, at the surfaces of contacting solids or liquids.
Desorption is the release of the molecular layer of the adsorbed on the surface of an absorbent. Desorption can be caused by high temperature, high humidity, or scalping.
Chemisorption is the process by which sorbates are adsorbed and chemically changed by a reaction with the sorbent material.
Physisorption is the process where molecules are physically bonded to the surface by Van der Vals and weak dipole forces. Physisorption processes are more reversible, and weaker bonds are formed compared to chemisorption processes. Sorption, adsorption, and desorption can be determined by measuring weight changes of the sorbate material.
Testers evaluate the amount of water absorbed by a material. Note that absorption differs from adsorption. Absorption takes in water past the surface and into the material itself. Adsorption is the accumulation of vapor or water onto the surface of a material. Plastics and paper materials can have varying degrees of water absorption. Typically, COBB testers are used in the paper industry to determine water absorption characteristics.
Atterberg or plastic limit is a measure of the water content where a soil changes from liquid to plastic behavior. The Atterberg limit is useful in understanding a soil's engineering properties. Casangrande cups and cone penetrometers are types of test equipment used to measure Atterberg or plastic limits.
Cloud point (CP) is the temperature at which the dissolved solids in a sample separate out. As the term suggests, cloud point temperature is reached when a previously clear solution becomes cloudy. When diesel fuels or oils decrease in temperature, a wax separates out and forms a floating cloudiness on the surface. Paraffin wax deposits can plug-up fuel or oil filters.
Cloud point (CP) can be thought of as the solubility limit of the sample in that particular solution. The minor sample-rich phase separates as small droplets are dispersed in the major water-rich phase. Cloud point temperature has largely replaced CFPP testing. Cold filter plug point (CFPP) requires a more complicated test procedure than CP testing.
Testers or test equipment determine the cohesion or internal friction of materials. These properties can be important in understanding the processing or end-use function of powders, soils, sands, rocks, and granular materials. In geophysical applications, bore hole or shear tests are used to determine cohesion and internal friction.
Testers or test equipment determine the compactability or compressibility of materials. These properties can be important in understanding the processing or end-use function of powders, foams, filter media and other compressible or porous materials.
Consistency is the amount of dry solids (% solids) or fibers in pulp or paper stock. It determines how the pulp can be formed and processed into paper. If the consistency is too thin or too thick, a paper web will not form properly. The specific consistency required depends on the paper-forming equipment used and the product being formed.
Contamination analysis determines the amount of dirt, inclusion, slag, shives, swarf, grinding debris, bacterial, microbial or other undesirable foreign contaminants in a material. The amount of shives, dirt and stickle in pulp or paper can influence processability. Contaminants in a coating, ink, or adhesive mixture can result in streaks or repeating defects in the finished product.
An evaluation of the cleanliness, hygiene, or level of sterilization is very important for food, beverages, cosmetics, drugs, medical, biotech and pharmaceutical products. Specialized instruments or test equipment may be used to evaluate the cleanliness, hygiene, or level of sterilization applied to a material. Testers often use the detection of bacteria or ATP to determine cleanliness or sanitary properties. UV light sources can also be useful.
Test equipment is designed for core sampling or analysis. Coring or core sampling is done on powder bodies, soils, and geological materials to capture a true picture of variation through the material. Testing a powder or granular material by "scooping" from the surface can be misleading due to settlement and segregation effects.
Deflection, heat distortion temperature (HDT), or softening point (e.g., Vicat) instruments measure the temperature that reflects the point of softening expected when a material is used in an elevated temperature application.
Loose packed density (LPD) or aerated density is the density of the powder or particulate body without any settlement, mechanical agitation, vibration, or tapping. Usually, loose packed density measurements are made by determining the mass of powder in a sample container of known volume.
Tap or packed density is the density of the powder or particulate body after settlement from tapping, mechanical agitation, vibration, or light packing (not compaction or consolidation). Often, both loose packed and tap density measurements are made to determine the Hausner ratio, which is calculated by dividing the loose-packed density by the tap density. Carr index is also related to loose packed and tap densities. The Carr index and Hausner ratio provide an indication of flowability.
Densometers are used for measuring porosity, air-permeability, or air resistance of sheet-like or bulk materials such as paper, woven cloth, porous plastics, nonwoven textiles, filtration media, and membranes. Densometers measure by determining the time required to drive or flow a fixed, known volume of air through a sample. Some densometers or densometry instruments also provide smoothness and softness indications through permeation measurements. Nuclear densometers are used to measure porosity, density, and moisture content in soil, asphalt, concrete and pavement field applications.
Disintegration or dissolution is the rate at which a chemical, material, drug, or pharmaceutical dissolves when put into water, another solvent or a simulated oral, digestive, or circulatory environment.
Testers are used to determine processability, plasticity, and viscoelastic properties. Plasticity is the amount of permanent plastic deformation a material can withstand without cracking.
Flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid can form an ignitable mixture in air near the surface of the liquid. The lower the flash point, the easier it is to ignite the material.
Flammability is a measure of how quickly a material will ignite and propagate combustion. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) have standards for the fire testing of materials. The UL 94 standard for flammability testing describes 12 flame classifications based on small-scale flame tests. UL 94 determines a material’s tendency to either propagate or extinguish a flame on an ignited and burning sample. UL 746A determine a material’s resistance to ignition.
Flowability provides an indication of the flow characteristics of a powder, granular material, slurry, or liquid. Powder flowability is determine through Carr index, basic flow index (BFI), Hausner ratio, angle of repose, internal friction, degree of floodability and other specialized or proprietary flow tests. Floodability is the degree to which a powder self-aerates and flows like a liquid. Slump tests determine the flowability or workability of a concrete, mortar or cement based material.
Freeness or drainage rate is the speed at which water can be removed from pulp. Canadian Standard Freeness (ml CSF) and degree SR are freeness measurements. Slowness is the inverse of freeness. The degree of freeness or slowness is controlled by the amount of beating or refining applied to the pulp.
Brittleness or friability is a measure of how easily a material can be fractured, crushed, or broken. Brittleness can be determined by impacting the material with a controlled load. A very friable plastic, mineral, or abrasive would be considered weak and easily crushed or broken. A low-friability abrasive or mineral would be considered tougher and more difficult to mill or crush. The brittle point or ductile-to-brittle transition temperature is determined by testing a material at a series of decreasing temperatures until brittle behavior is observed.
Friction testers test friction force, the resisting force tangential to the interface between two bodies when, under the action of an external force, one body moves or tends to move relative to the other. Coefficient of friction (COF,) values are often determined. Friction force = () x (Normal Force). The COF can be dynamic (sliding) or static. Wall friction between a powder and die wall is important in understanding compaction for manufacturing pills, metal parts, ceramics, and other compacts.
Gelation refers to the amount of time a sample needs to form a gel. In a resin cure, gelation occurs when resin viscosity has increased to a point such that it barely moves when probed with a sharp instrument.
Melt flow index (MFI) testers determine the melt flow rate (MFR) or melt volume rate (MVR) of a sample material at a specific temperature (190°C). Sample materials can include plastics, thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) or rubber, polymers, waxes, and moldable foods (chocolate, candy, etc.). Melt flow index (MFI) is the output flow rate in grams that occurs in a 10-minute period through a standard die of 2.0955 mm diameter and 8.000 mm in length while a fixed pressure is applied to a 190°C melt via a piston.
Blow molding and extrusion processes tend to use resins with lower MFI values. Injection molding typically uses higher MFI polymers. Specialized melt flow index test equipment products are available. Some rheometers are useful for MFI determination. Extrusiometers or instrumented laboratory extruders are also used to measure the MFI, MVR, MFR extrudability or extrusion characteristics of plastic, rubber, elastomer or polymer materials.
The octane rating or number determines the resistance of gasoline or ethanol to early detonation, which causes engine knocking. Octane numbers vary from 0 to 100 (or higher for alcohol fuels). A fuel's octane number is measured by combusting the fuel in a test engine and comparing the results to tests on a standardized fuel mix (iso-octane and n-heptane mixture). Various octane boosters or anti-knock additives can be added to fuels to elevate the effective octane rating.
Cetane numbers or ratings are used on diesel or biodiesel fuels that combust through compression. The cetane number or rating is a measure of the combustion delay during compression ignition. Higher cetane fuels ignite more quickly during the compression cycle compared to lower cetane fuels.
Gas or vapor permeability is a measurement of a sample’s ability to transmit gases or vapors. The oxygen transmission rate (OTR) and the water vapor transmission rate (WVTr) are important measurements in determining the ability of a packaging film or material to maintain freshness.
Porosimeters measure the pore volume and distribution in a bulk material. They use either liquid intrusion into pores or liquid extrusion from pores to measure pore volume. Porometers or bubble point testers determine the point at which pressure can overcome capillary action in a porous material.
It is often necessary to know how cold a particular sample can become before it loses its fluid characteristics. If a sample is chilled sufficiently, it eventually reaches a temperature at which it will no longer flow under the influence of gravity. For many applications, a sample that does not flow of its own accord at low temperatures will not provide satisfactory properties such as lubrication. The extent to which a sample can be safely chilled is indicated by its pour point, the lowest temperature at which the undisturbed sample can be poured from a container.
Smoothness is determined by porosity and uniformity (flatness or even-ness). Smoothness influences printability. A flat, even surface prints more consistently than a rough, uneven surface. A smooth surface provides better ink dot formation and sharper images.
A variety of different techniques or scales are available for smoothness testing. These include Bendtsen, Sheffield, Bekk, Parker Print Surf (PPS), Oken, and Gurley. Some instruments are based on one technique, but provide calculated equivalent smoothness reading values on other unit scales. Many of the instruments are based on surface air leak or air permeability test methods.
The specific surface area of a powder is determined by physical adsorption of a gas on the surface of the solid, and by measuring the amount of adsorbate gas corresponding to a monomolecular layer on the surface.
Surface area can be determined by measuring the amount of material required to form a single layer - a monolayer - on the surface. If the area per molecule or ion adsorbed is known, then the total surface area from such a measurement can be calculated.
Surface tension instruments measure a fluid’s surface tension or energy, a tangential force that keeps a fluid together at the air/fluid interface. Lower surface energy materials are more easily wet by higher surface energy liquids. Wettability is determined by the relative surface and surface tension or energies of the materials in contact.
Texture analysis is primarily concerned with the evaluation of mechanical characteristics where a food is subjected to a controlled force from which a deformation curve of its response is generated. Texture analysis is an integral part of the production chain, generating benefits throughout, from research and development to process optimization and production. Key fundamental characteristics, which affect finished product texture quality are identified throughout the initial stages of development. From there they may be selected for at-line process control measurements. Common characteristics analyzed include hardness, cohesiveness, elasticity, adhesiveness, and viscosity. Secondary characteristics include brittleness, chewiness, and gumminess.
Total base number (TBN) refers to reserve alkalinity, or to the amount of acid the oil or lubricant can absorb. Acids are formed during the combustion process, oxidation through heating or overheating, or through environmental, fuel or process contamination. Elevated sulfur levels in fuels increase sulfuric acid formation and reduce the TBN level overtime. Oils or lubricants with higher TBN values can disperse or suspend wear debris contaminants and mitigate the corrosive effects of acids over an extended time. The units for TBN are mg KOH/g or milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram. Total acid number (TAN) is the inverse of TBN. TAN indicates the level of acid contamination in the oil, grease, or lubricant.
Ferrographs are used to analyze wear debris or particles in oils, lubricants, and greases. The shape, size, concentration, count, and composition can indicate a great deal about lubricant and machine condition. Wear analysis can also be performed on wear surfaces.
Contact or wetting angles are a measure of wettability. Contact angles are determined by the relative surface and surface tension or energies of the materials in contact. The equation that governs wetting angle () is SA (solid-air) - SA (Liquid-solid) = SA (liquid-air)cos() . SA (liquid-solid) is the surface energy of the liquid-solid interface or interfacial energy. SA (liquid-air) is the surface energy of the liquid-air interface or interfacial energy. SA (solid-air) is the surface energy of the solid-air interface or interfacial energy.
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Devices test substances that coat, fasten, bond, or seal materials. Adhesives that bond and seal are called adhesive sealants. Coatings are thin layers of protective or decorative compounds that are bonded to the surface of a substrate by a variety of methods. Wetting and surface energy are key properties in the processing and function of coatings, adhesives, and sealants.
Devices are designed to evaluate building and construction materials such as metal, plastic, rubber, asphalt, concrete, cement, mortar, adhesives, sealants, rock or aggregate, soil, wood , textiles, and foam.
Ceramics consist of oxides, carbides, nitrides, carbon, and other non-metals with high melting points. Ceramics are suitable for applications requiring wear resistance, refractoriness, low electrical resistivity, or other specialized characteristics.
Devices are designed to evaluate the properties or workability of concrete, mortar, or cement products. Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, and aggregate. Mortar contains these same ingredients along with hydrated lime and sand to facilitate workability and decrease working time.
Devices are designed to test food, drugs, drug additives, food additives, beverages, pharmaceutical materials, active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), or food ingredients for properties such as contamination, flow, texture, stability, melting point, freezing point, foamability, dissolution, or water absorption.
Devices are designed to test gases such as argon, carbon dioxide, phosphine, nitrogen, oxygen, mixed gases, propane, natural gas, semiconductor gases, medical gases or process gases, and other specialty gases.
Devices are designed to test or perform geophysical analysis on geological materials such as rock, stone, soil, strata, etc. Such test equipment is used to provide tests in the field, core or extract specimens (sampling), or provide laboratory analysis on samples (cores, specimens) taken from the field.
Devices are designed to test metals or alloys with two or more metallic elements. As a category, metals include electropositive elements that are generally good conductors of heat and electricity, and that can be melted or fused, hammered into thin sheets, or drawn into wires.
Devices are designed to test polymers, plastics, and elastomers. Polymers are organic, synthetic, or processed materials typically consist of thermoplastic or thermosetting resins. Plastic testers or test equipment tests any of various organic compounds produced by polymerization. These materials can be molded, cast, or extruded into various shapes and films. Rubbers and elastomers are polymers that exhibit very high elasticity and resilience compared to plastic polymeric materials.
Devices can be used to evaluate rock, stone, crushed ore, or aggregate in the field, or to test a sample removed from the field. Minerals and ores are raw materials that are crushed, milled, extracted, refined and/or processed to produce finished products such as glass, fillers, reinforcements, cement, metals and ceramics.
Devices are designed to test the properties of wood or wood products such as timber, lumber, plywood, engineered wood products, particle board, wood flour, and other wood-based materials.
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Devices are benchtop, table-based, or floor-mounted gages or instruments where a part is both manually loaded and measured. The tester, instrument, or test equipment is a larger, free-standing or floor-mounted unit.
Sensors, instruments or monitors are mounted within or on a process line, piece of equipment, or machine tool in a production environment to allow continuous monitoring and control of specific materials or media properties.
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) values are often determined. Friction force = (
) is SA (solid-air) - SA (Liquid-solid) = SA (liquid-air)cos(